English:Guns ‘N' Roses - Paradise City - 1987
Guns ‘N' Roses - Paradise City - 1987
Introduction
Paradise City is a hard-rock song by Guns N' Roses that first appeared on the band's debut album, Appetite for Destruction. The album was released on 21 July 1987, which explains the year in this aiMOOC's title. The song itself was promoted as a single later, in late 1988 and during 1989. Distinguishing the album year from the single's chart year is an important part of accurate music-history research.[1][2]
This course approaches the song as a piece of music, a cultural document, a collaborative production, a music-video text, and a continuing live-performance tradition. You will learn to hear form, timbre, texture, tempo, dynamics, riffs, vocal arrangement, and instrumental roles. You will also consider how longing, place, identity, commercial media, and 1980s rock culture shape the song's meaning.
The course is suitable for secondary school, vocational education, introductory university study, music ensembles, media classes, and independent learners. You do not need to play an instrument, but careful listening and a willingness to compare evidence are essential.
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The photograph above shows the scale of a later Guns N' Roses concert. As you work through the course, consider why a song created in the 1980s can still function effectively in a stadium setting.
The official music video is the central audiovisual source for this aiMOOC. Watch it first for overall impact, then return to it with the observation questions below. The video contains rapidly edited concert footage and intense stage lighting; learners who are sensitive to flashing imagery should use an audio-only version or pause frequently.
Learning Goals
After completing this aiMOOC, you should be able to:
- Music history: Place the song accurately within the 1987 album era and its later single release.
- Critical listening: Identify major changes in texture, dynamics, tempo feel, instrumentation, and form.
- Songwriting: Explain how a riff, chorus, verses, transitions, and an extended ending create musical momentum.
- Music production: Describe how guitars, bass, drums, voice, backing vocals, whistle, and synthesizer contribute to the recording.
- Media literacy: Analyze how concert footage and editing construct the band's public image.
- Cultural studies: Interpret the contrast between urban pressure and an imagined place of belonging.
- Evidence-based writing: Support claims with audible, visual, or documentary evidence.
- Creative transfer: Apply the song's structural principles to an original project without copying protected lyrics or melody.
Historical Context
Guns N' Roses and the Los Angeles Rock Scene
Guns N' Roses formed in Los Angeles in 1985. The classic lineup associated with Appetite for Destruction consisted of Axl Rose, Slash, Izzy Stradlin, Duff McKagan, and Steven Adler. Their music combined forceful hard-rock guitar playing with melodic hooks, a punk-influenced edge, blues-based lead guitar, and lyrics shaped by unstable urban experience. The Rock & Roll Hall of Fame describes the 1987 album as raw, aggressive, tuneful rock sharpened by punk energy.[3]
Los Angeles in the mid-1980s had a highly visible club scene, record-industry network, and image-driven rock culture. Bands competed for attention through live shows, flyers, fashion, photography, demo recordings, and personal connections. Appetite for Destruction emerged from this environment but was not merely a polished celebration of it. Much of the album presents danger, hunger, ambition, addiction, conflict, and survival alongside moments of tenderness and fantasy.
This later concert photograph helps you identify the physical roles of singer and guitarists on stage. Compare the spacing, gestures, and visual hierarchy with the official video.
Why 1987 Matters
Appetite for Destruction was released by Geffen Records in 1987 and was produced by Mike Clink. The Rock & Roll Hall of Fame catalogue lists “Paradise City” as the sixth track and credits the album's core performance lineup.[1]
The date matters for three reasons. First, 1987 places the recording within an album-centered music economy dominated by vinyl, cassette, radio, music television, and physical retail. Second, the track's later single success shows that a song's cultural life may develop long after its first album appearance. Third, historical labels can be misleading unless you ask what exactly a date refers to: composition, recording, album publication, single release, chart entry, video release, or later reissue.
Research habit: Whenever you see a year attached to a song, identify the event represented by that year rather than assuming that all releases happened at once.
Creation and Credits
Collaborative Songwriting
Accounts attributed to Slash describe the song beginning informally while band members travelled in a rental van after a performance. A guitar idea, a vocal response, and group participation developed into a larger composition. The band then expanded the material through collaborative rehearsal.[2]
This origin story illustrates a common feature of rock songwriting: composition may begin with a fragment rather than a complete written score. A riff, rhythmic pattern, chord sequence, phrase shape, or vocal contour can act as a seed. Other musicians respond, repeat, alter, contrast, and organize the fragment until it becomes a form.
All five members of the classic lineup received songwriting credit for “Paradise City”: Axl Rose, Slash, Izzy Stradlin, Duff McKagan, and Steven Adler. Mike Clink produced the recording.[2] The shared credit is educationally significant because it challenges the idea that every song begins with one isolated author. Arrangement decisions, rhythmic feel, transitions, and ensemble interaction can be central acts of composition.
Performance Personnel
| Musician | Principal role on the recording | Listening focus |
|---|---|---|
| Axl Rose | Lead vocals, synthesizer, whistle | Vocal register, intensity, articulation, and signals between sections |
| Slash | Lead guitar and backing vocals | Introductory texture, main riff, fills, and extended lead playing |
| Izzy Stradlin | Rhythm guitar and backing vocals | Chordal support, groove, and blend with the lead guitar |
| Duff McKagan | Bass and backing vocals | Connection between harmony, riff, and drum pulse |
| Steven Adler | Drums | Backbeat, fills, transitions, and acceleration of energy |
| Mike Clink | Producer | Balance, clarity, layering, and the overall recorded performance |
The recording is often noted as the only track on Appetite for Destruction to use a synthesizer.[2] This does not make the song electronic music; rather, the synthesizer adds a distinctive timbral layer within a guitar-led arrangement.
Observe the relationship between instrument, posture, amplification, and visual persona. In performance studies, sound and image are analyzed together rather than treated as unrelated.
Musical Architecture
Form and Momentum
“Paradise City” is unusually expansive for a mainstream rock single. Instead of presenting one short verse-chorus cycle and ending quickly, it builds a large-scale journey. Exact boundaries can be interpreted differently, but a useful listening map is:
| Section | Main musical function | What you can listen for |
|---|---|---|
| Opening | Establishes a bright, spacious expectation | Layered guitar sonority, whistle, synthesizer color, and a gradual invitation into the groove |
| Main riff entrance | Introduces weight and forward motion | Distorted guitar, bass reinforcement, drum backbeat, and a compact recurring pattern |
| Verse area | Creates narrative tension | Denser vocal delivery, darker atmosphere, and contrast with the broad chorus |
| Chorus area | Provides release and collective participation | Wider melody, backing voices, repeated harmonic cycle, and stronger sense of open space |
| Repeated cycles | Builds familiarity while increasing intensity | Small changes in fills, vocal attack, guitar decoration, and ensemble density |
| Transition | Prepares the final transformation | Rising urgency, repeated material, and reduced sense of rest |
| Extended coda | Converts the song into a high-speed climax | Double-time feel, repeated vocal material, continuous lead guitar, and maximum ensemble energy |
The final part is often described as moving into double time. This means that the music feels approximately twice as fast because subdivisions and attacks become more frequent, even when listeners may continue to sense a larger underlying pulse. The change creates exhilaration without requiring entirely new melodic material.
The Riff as an Organizing Device
A riff is a short, recognizable musical pattern that returns and helps define a song. In “Paradise City,” the main heavy-guitar riff does more than decorate the arrangement. It organizes the groove, supports the vocal sections, gives the instruments a shared point of reference, and provides a memorable contrast with the more open chorus.
The riff includes chromatic movement, meaning that adjacent notes from the twelve-note system are used to create tension and directional pull. Chromatic motion often sounds unstable compared with a simple major-scale melody. Here it contributes to the contrast between the verses' pressure and the chorus's imagined openness.
Try tapping the drum pulse while humming only the contour of the riff without reproducing the exact notes. You may notice that rhythm and shape are as important to recognition as precise pitch.
Texture, Timbre, and Dynamics
Texture describes how musical layers interact. The opening is comparatively spacious: individual colors are easy to distinguish. When the main riff arrives, the texture becomes denser because drums, bass, rhythm guitar, lead guitar, and voice occupy the same forward-driving space. The chorus widens the texture through sustained vocal shapes and backing voices. The coda becomes the most saturated section, with repeated vocals and extended guitar lead activity occurring together.
Timbre is the quality that allows you to distinguish one sound from another even at a similar pitch or loudness. Important timbres include the bright opening guitar, distorted electric guitars, bass, snare-driven drums, whistle, synthesizer, Axl Rose's shifting vocal tone, and the blended backing vocals.
Dynamics concern changes in loudness and perceived intensity. A studio rock recording may remain consistently strong in measured volume, yet still create dynamic contrast through orchestration. Adding instruments, increasing register, using more frequent drum attacks, intensifying vocal delivery, and filling more of the frequency spectrum can make a section feel louder and more urgent.
Use the audio source above for a sound-focused pass. Close your eyes or move the video out of view. Write down each moment when the texture, tempo feel, vocal density, or guitar role changes.
Lyrics, Place, and Meaning
Longing and Contrast
The song's central idea is a desire to leave a hostile or exhausting environment and reach an idealized place of safety, beauty, pleasure, and belonging. The verses and chorus do not present the same emotional world. The verses suggest pressure, danger, and uncertainty, while the chorus imagines a broad communal destination.
This contrast is powerful because “paradise” is never explained as a realistic map location. It works as a symbol. Depending on your interpretation, it can represent home, childhood, the American Midwest, escape from Los Angeles, romantic fantasy, success, freedom, or the emotional relief offered by a concert community.
A strong interpretation must distinguish three levels:
- Narrative voice: What kind of speaker seems to be addressing the listener?
- Setting: What pressures characterize the speaker's present environment?
- Symbolism: What values are projected onto the imagined destination?
Do not assume that the speaker and the real-life artist are identical. Songs often construct a voice for dramatic effect.
Ambivalence Rather Than Simple Celebration
The song may sound triumphant, but its meaning is not purely cheerful. The dream of paradise is made urgent by dissatisfaction with the present. Repetition can express confidence, but it can also sound like insistence or desperation. The final high-speed section increases excitement while leaving the desire unresolved: musical energy substitutes for arrival.
This tension explains why the track works both as a personal fantasy and as a mass-participation anthem. Individual longing is transformed into a chorus that thousands of listeners can share.
Gender, Image, and Critical Listening
Some of the song's imagery reflects male-centered conventions common in commercial hard rock of the 1980s. A critical listener can enjoy musical craft while still questioning how women, desire, beauty, and belonging are represented. Historical context explains a convention; it does not require uncritical acceptance.
Ask whose perspective dominates, who is described rather than allowed to speak, and how a contemporary version might represent paradise differently. This approach connects popular music studies with gender studies, ethics, and media literacy.
The Recording as Ensemble Work
Guitar Partnership
The band's guitar sound depends on contrast and cooperation between lead and rhythm functions. Slash's lead playing supplies recognizable riffs, fills, and the extended solo voice. Izzy Stradlin's rhythm guitar strengthens harmony and groove. These roles are not rigidly separated at every moment, but the distinction helps you hear why two guitars can sound larger and more flexible than one doubled part.
Listen for stereo placement, differences in tone, and moments when one guitar leaves space for the other. In an ensemble, effective arranging often depends on subtraction. Two players do not need to perform continuously or occupy the same register.
Bass and Drums
Duff McKagan's bass links the guitar harmony to Steven Adler's drum groove. The bass can reinforce riff notes, outline chord roots, or add motion between structural points. Adler's backbeat gives the song a direct rock foundation, while fills mark transitions and prepare new sections.
In the coda, the rhythm section makes the double-time feel convincing. The effect depends not only on speed but also on coordination: more frequent attacks must remain aligned closely enough to preserve the groove.
Voice and Backing Vocals
Axl Rose changes vocal color across the track. Lower, speech-like or compressed delivery can increase tension; higher and more projected singing creates urgency and scale. Backing vocals enlarge the chorus and make it sound communal. The contrast between solo voice and group response supports the song's central movement from individual pressure toward collective release.
Vocal analysis should include register, articulation, breath, timbre, phrasing, and relationship to the instrumental rhythm. Avoid reducing the performance to a judgment about whether you personally like the singer's tone.
Music Video and Media Literacy
Concert Footage as Narrative
The official video uses concert and backstage material, including footage associated with Giants Stadium in New Jersey and the 1988 Monsters of Rock festival at Donington Park in England.[2][4] Rather than telling a fictional story with actors, the video turns live performance into the story.
This strategy connects the imagined destination of the song with the physical community of a concert. Wide shots establish scale, close-ups create intimacy, crowd images provide evidence of popularity, and backstage moments suggest access to a world beyond the public stage.
Editing, Authenticity, and Star Image
A music video is edited construction, even when its images document real events. Shots are selected, ordered, shortened, repeated, and synchronized with a studio recording. The result can feel spontaneous while being carefully designed.
Analyze the following relationships:
- Montage: How does the speed of cutting respond to musical intensity?
- Star image: Which performers receive close-ups, and how are their identities established?
- Audience representation: Is the crowd shown as individuals, a mass, or a source of energy?
- Backstage access: How do offstage images create a feeling of authenticity?
- Scale: How do stadium views turn a song into evidence of cultural importance?
- Synchronization: Do visual accents match drum hits, vocal entries, or guitar gestures?
The video does not merely illustrate the song. It teaches viewers how to imagine the band, the audience, and the meaning of success.
Compare this still image with the moving video. A photograph freezes one selected instant, while video editing can build a sequence of cause, response, tension, and release.
Reception and Cultural Life
From Album Track to Hit Single
“Paradise City” became a major hit after its appearance on the 1987 album. It reached number five on the US Billboard Hot 100 and number six on the UK Singles Chart; the Official Charts Company records its UK peak in March 1989.[2][5]
Chart data measure a particular form of commercial attention, not artistic quality. A chart position may reflect radio airplay, sales, promotion, distribution, touring, television exposure, and competition from other releases. To interpret a chart responsibly, you should identify the territory, chart type, measurement period, and media economy.
The Song as a Live Finale
The song has frequently been used near the end of Guns N' Roses concerts, often as an encore or closing number.[2] Its structure supports this function. The familiar chorus invites collective singing, the long form allows performers to expand energy, and the double-time coda creates a clear climax.
This Wikimedia Commons photograph specifically documents a live performance of “Paradise City” in Hamilton, Canada. Study the crowd-facing stage arrangement and consider what cannot be heard from a still image: volume, pacing, audience singing, and the sensation of the final acceleration.
The Rock & Roll Hall of Fame performance offers a comparison with the official video. Note differences in personnel, vocal timbre, guitar tone, stage scale, and historical context. A live version is not simply an imperfect copy of a studio recording; it is a new event shaped by venue, performers, technology, and audience.
Legacy and Reinterpretation
The song remains widely recognizable because several musical features reinforce one another: a strong title concept, a distinctive riff, a broad chorus, clear contrast between sections, a dramatic ending, and a performance style suited to large audiences. Later performances keep the composition culturally active, while films, sports events, cover versions, radio, streaming, and social media introduce it to listeners who did not experience the 1987 album era.
Legacy is not fixed. Each generation selects different elements to celebrate or criticize. One listener may focus on guitar craft, another on nostalgia, another on gender representation, another on production, and another on the shared emotion of live performance.
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The 2023 festival image demonstrates the long interval between the song's album debut and its continuing performance life. Historical study should therefore examine both origin and afterlife.
Critical Listening Workshop
First Pass: Overall Experience
Listen without taking notes. Afterward, write three adjectives for the sound, one sentence about the emotional journey, and one question you would like to investigate. This pass records your initial response before technical vocabulary shapes it.
Second Pass: Structural Map
Create a horizontal timeline. Mark each major change in section, texture, or tempo feel. Use your own labels first, such as “bright opening,” “heavy riff,” “wide chorus,” and “fast ending.” Then translate your labels into formal terms such as intro, verse, chorus, transition, solo, and coda.
Different listeners may place boundaries at slightly different moments. A useful map must be internally consistent and supported by audible evidence.
Third Pass: One Instrument at a Time
Choose one layer and follow it through the entire track.
- Drum set: Mark backbeats, fills, cymbal changes, and the double-time transition.
- Electric bass: Notice when the line reinforces the riff and when it moves independently.
- Rhythm guitar: Identify chordal support, rests, and changes in density.
- Lead guitar: Track riffs, fills, sustained notes, and the extended ending.
- Lead vocals: Observe register, articulation, intensity, and repeated phrases.
- Backing vocals: Note how group singing changes the scale of the chorus.
- Synthesizer: Identify where its color can be heard within the guitar-based texture.
Fourth Pass: Video Without Sound
Mute the official video and watch approximately one minute. Predict the musical intensity from shot length, camera movement, performer gestures, and crowd behavior. Then replay with sound and compare your prediction with the actual arrangement.
This experiment shows how strongly visual editing can imply rhythm and energy even in silence.
Fifth Pass: Evidence-Based Interpretation
Write a paragraph answering this question: Does the song present paradise as a real destination, a memory, a fantasy, or a performance-created community? Include at least one musical observation, one lyrical idea stated in your own words, and one visual observation from the video.
Production and Technology
Recording an Ensemble
A rock recording requires decisions about microphone placement, amplifier sound, room acoustics, performance takes, editing, overdubbing, balance, stereo position, equalization, compression, ambience, and final sequencing. The producer coordinates artistic and technical choices with the musicians and engineering team.
The audible clarity of the main riff, vocal, snare, and lead guitar is not accidental. Each must remain identifiable while the arrangement grows dense. Production therefore solves a problem of controlled competition: several strong sounds occupy overlapping frequency and dynamic ranges.
Studio Version and Live Version
Compare the studio recording with a later live performance using this table:
| Dimension | Studio questions | Live questions |
|---|---|---|
| Tempo | Is the pulse stable and carefully controlled? | Does excitement make sections feel faster or more flexible? |
| Balance | Which instrument is placed most clearly in front? | Does the venue or audience change what dominates? |
| Vocals | How consistent are pitch, layering, and backing parts? | How does the singer adapt phrasing to breath and crowd response? |
| Guitar | How are rhythm and lead parts separated? | Are solos extended, shortened, or altered? |
| Form | Are transitions compact and repeatable? | Does the performance add pauses, introductions, or audience interaction? |
| Sound space | Is ambience shaped through studio processing? | How much of the room, stadium, or crowd becomes part of the sound? |
A fair comparison does not ask which version is “perfect.” It asks what each version is designed to achieve.
Copyright and Responsible Use
Songs, lyrics, recordings, videos, photographs, and logos can have different copyright conditions. In your projects, do not reproduce the full lyrics, copy the melody, or upload the commercial recording without permission. You may analyze short features, describe the structure in your own words, create an original response, and link to authorized sources.
The Wikimedia Commons files used in this aiMOOC have individual licensing information on their file pages. Check the photographer, license, attribution requirements, and permitted uses before reusing an image outside the wiki. A YouTube embed does not transfer ownership of the video to the learner or course creator.
Responsible media work includes crediting creators, distinguishing quotation from paraphrase, using openly licensed materials when possible, and documenting your sources.
Interactive Tasks
Quiz: Test Your Knowledge
Why is 1987 important to Paradise City? (It is the year the song appeared on Appetite for Destruction) (!It is the year the single peaked in the United Kingdom) (!It is the year the official video was uploaded to YouTube) (!It is the year Guns N' Roses entered the Rock Hall)
Which album first included Paradise City? (Appetite for Destruction) (!Use Your Illusion I) (!Chinese Democracy) (!G N R Lies)
Who produced the original album recording? (Mike Clink) (!Quincy Jones) (!George Martin) (!Rick Rubin)
Which instrument adds an unusual color to the track within the album? (Synthesizer) (!Saxophone) (!Cello) (!Trumpet)
What happens to the tempo feel in the extended ending? (It shifts into a double time feel) (!It becomes a slow waltz) (!It stops beneath an unaccompanied voice) (!It changes into a reggae groove)
What is a riff? (A short recurring musical pattern) (!A legal contract for touring) (!A type of concert ticket) (!A silent pause between albums)
What contrast is central to the song's meaning? (Urban pressure and imagined refuge) (!Winter weather and summer weather) (!Classical music and electronic dance music) (!School life and professional sport)
What kind of material dominates the official music video? (Concert and backstage footage) (!Stop motion animation) (!A fictional courtroom drama) (!A silent studio interview)
What did Paradise City reach on the UK Singles Chart? (Number six) (!Number one) (!Number twenty) (!Number ninety nine)
Why does the song work effectively as a concert finale? (Its communal chorus and accelerating coda create a climax) (!Its arrangement removes all drums and guitars) (!Its duration is less than one minute) (!Its melody avoids repetition completely)
Memory Game
| Riff | A short recurring pattern that helps define a song |
| Timbre | The distinctive quality or color of a sound |
| Coda | A concluding section that extends or completes a composition |
| Montage | Meaning created by selecting and ordering audiovisual shots |
| Backbeat | Strong emphasis commonly placed on the second and fourth beats |
| Chromaticism | Musical motion using notes outside a single diatonic scale |
Drag and Drop
| Match the correct terms. | Topic |
|---|---|
| Album debut | The song first appeared on a 1987 studio album |
| Single campaign | The recording was promoted separately after the album release |
| Main riff | A recurring distorted guitar idea organizes the groove |
| Chorus | A broad repeated section invites collective participation |
| Double time coda | The ending increases the rate of musical activity |
Crossword Puzzle
| Appetite | What first word names the album that introduced the song? |
| Synthesizer | Which electronic instrument adds a distinctive color to the recording? |
| Chromatic | What term describes movement through adjacent pitches? |
| Encore | What concert role has the song often served near the end? |
| Donington | Which English festival location contributed footage to the video? |
| Montage | What editing technique creates meaning by arranging shots? |
LearningApps
Cloze Text
Open-Ended Tasks
Easy
- Listening Map: Draw a timeline of the song and label at least five audible changes in section, texture, or intensity.
- Timbre Postcard: Create an image-based postcard that represents four instrumental colors without copying album artwork.
- Video Shot Log: Watch one minute of the official video and record shot type, subject, approximate duration, and musical event.
- Concert Interview: Interview someone about a memorable concert finale and compare their description with the effect of “Paradise City.”
Standard
- Original Riff Study: Compose and record a new four-bar riff that uses repetition and contrast without copying the song's notes.
- Studio and Live Comparison: Produce a two-page comparison of the original recording and one authorized live performance using musical evidence.
- Paradise Photo Essay: Create five original photographs showing what “refuge” or “belonging” means in your community, with analytical captions.
- Music Video Storyboard: Design a twelve-shot storyboard for an original song about leaving one environment for another.
Advanced
- Chart Context Research: Investigate the song's chart performance in two countries and explain how chart systems and release dates affect interpretation.
- Production Reconstruction: Use legal audio tools or your own instruments to build an original layered rock texture with intro, riff, chorus, transition, and coda.
- Gender and Rock Discourse: Write a critical essay comparing the song's perspective with a later song that represents desire or place differently.
- Local Music Archive: Visit a library, archive, music venue, record shop, or museum and produce a short documentary about how music from the 1980s is preserved and remembered.
Learning Assessment
- Structural Argument: Defend your division of the song into sections and explain one boundary that another listener might place differently.
- Sound and Meaning: Explain how two musical features transform the idea of escape into a large-scale communal experience.
- Release-Date Reasoning: Construct a timeline that distinguishes composition, recording, album release, single promotion, chart success, and later performance.
- Video Analysis: Evaluate how editing and camera scale create authenticity while also constructing a commercial star image.
- Arrangement Transfer: Design an original song plan that uses contrast and an accelerating ending, then justify how it avoids copying protected material.
- Critical Context: Assess one aspect of 1980s rock culture that the song preserves and one aspect that contemporary listeners may question.
- Source Evaluation: Compare an official archive, a chart source, Wikipedia, and a fan source, then rank their usefulness for different research questions.
Evidence of Learning
Knowledge: You accurately distinguish the 1987 album appearance from later single and chart activity; identify the lineup, producer, principal instruments, major formal sections, and key historical context.
Listening skills: You locate structural changes, describe timbre and texture, recognize the main riff and double-time coda, and support observations with specific moments in the recording.
Media-analysis skills: You explain how montage, close-ups, crowd imagery, backstage access, and stadium scale shape the official video's meaning.
Research skills: You compare sources, record publication details, separate documented facts from interpretation, and use appropriate attribution.
Creative products: Your portfolio may include a listening map, original riff, storyboard, photo essay, interview, comparative essay, audio production, or documentary.
Transfer achievement: You apply concepts such as riff, contrast, collective chorus, tempo feel, production layering, and visual editing to unfamiliar songs and original work.
Reflection: You can explain how your first impression changed after technical listening and historical research.
References
OERs on the Topic
The English Wikipedia articles on Paradise City, Guns N' Roses, Appetite for Destruction, hard rock, riff, song structure, and music video provide starting points for further open research. Verify important claims against official archives, chart organizations, published books, or primary interviews.
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