English:Globalisation Since 1945
Globalisation Since 1945
Introduction
Globalisation since 1945 is the growing and changing web of connections that links economies, societies, governments and individuals across borders. It includes the movement of goods, services, capital, people, technology, information and cultural products. Globalisation is not a single force and it is not simply the same thing as free trade. It is a historical process shaped by political choices, institutions, technologies, conflicts, business strategies and social movements.
In this aiMOOC you will examine globalisation from the end of the Second World War to the 2020s. You will study both acceleration and interruption: post-war reconstruction, decolonisation, the Cold War, container shipping, European integration, the rise of multinational corporations, financial liberalisation, the end of the Soviet bloc, the World Trade Organization, China's integration into the world economy, digital networks, the 2008 financial crisis, the COVID-19 pandemic and renewed geopolitical rivalry.
For Grades 11–13, the central goal is not to memorise a list of dates. You should learn to explain causation, change, continuity, consequence and different perspectives. You should also be able to distinguish between a claim that two trends happened at the same time and a stronger claim that one trend caused the other.
The 1944 Bretton Woods Conference took place before the formal end of the war, but the institutions designed there became central to the post-war international economic order.
Learning Goals
By the end of this course, you should be able to explain how globalisation developed in several overlapping phases since 1945; compare economic, political, technological, social and cultural drivers; evaluate both opportunities and costs; use historical evidence to test broad claims; and connect a global process to specific places, products and communities.
You should be able to use concepts such as Bretton Woods system, General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, World Trade Organization, multinational corporation, foreign direct investment, global value chain, containerization, economic liberalization, regional integration, migration, digital divide and sustainable development accurately and in context.
What Does Globalisation Mean?
Globalisation can be studied through several dimensions at once.
- International trade: Goods and services cross borders through increasingly dense markets and supply chains.
- Capital flow: Loans, portfolio investment and foreign direct investment link financial systems and businesses.
- Migration: People move for work, safety, education, family and opportunity, creating transnational communities.
- Communication: Satellites, fibre-optic cables, mobile networks and the internet move information rapidly across borders.
- Culture: Music, film, fashion, food, sport and ideas circulate internationally and are adapted locally.
- International organization: States cooperate through institutions that write rules, lend money, settle disputes or coordinate policy.
A useful historical insight is that globalisation can advance, stall or change direction. The world economy was already highly interconnected before 1914, but war, depression and protectionism disrupted that earlier phase. After 1945, governments deliberately rebuilt international cooperation. Later, political revolutions, technological innovations and market reforms widened the process.
This late-twentieth-century map uses a core, semi-periphery and periphery framework. Treat it as an interpretive model, not as a neutral photograph of the world economy. Ask what the model highlights, what it hides and whether countries can change position over time.
A Useful Analytical Distinction
Internationalisation means more cross-border interaction between national economies. Globalisation often implies a deeper level of integration in which production, finance, communication and culture become organised through networks that cross many borders. A company can import a finished product from one country without creating a global value chain. A smartphone assembled from components designed, financed, manufactured and transported through many countries is a stronger example of globalised production.
Another useful concept is interdependence. Interdependence can create mutual benefits, but it can also create vulnerability. A factory may gain access to cheaper components from abroad, yet become exposed to a distant port closure or geopolitical conflict. The same connection can therefore be both a source of efficiency and a source of risk.
Phase One: Building a Post-War Order, 1945–1971
Bretton Woods and Economic Cooperation
The post-war settlement was strongly influenced by memories of the Great Depression, competitive currency devaluations, protectionism and war. Policymakers wanted to avoid a return to economic nationalism on the scale of the 1930s. At Bretton Woods, representatives of 44 countries designed institutions for monetary and financial cooperation. The International Monetary Fund was created to support monetary stability and provide temporary financial assistance, while the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development was created to support reconstruction and development.
The Bretton Woods monetary system used fixed but adjustable exchange rates. The US dollar was linked to gold, and other participating currencies were linked to the dollar. The system did not eliminate national economic policy. In fact, many governments combined international trade liberalisation with domestic welfare states, capital controls and demand management. Historians and political economists sometimes call this compromise embedded liberalism: markets were opened internationally while governments retained substantial room to pursue employment and social-policy goals at home.
GATT and the Reduction of Trade Barriers
In 1947, 23 countries signed the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, usually called GATT. It created rules for trade and provided a forum for negotiating lower tariffs. The broader International Trade Organization planned at the time was never established, so GATT became the main multilateral framework for trade in goods until the creation of the WTO in 1995.
Successive GATT negotiation rounds reduced many tariffs, especially among industrial economies. This was one reason why international trade grew rapidly during the post-war decades, but it was not the only reason. Reconstruction, mass production, rising incomes, technological change, political stability in major trading regions and cheaper transport also mattered.
The post-war order was never fully global in the geographical sense. The Cold War divided political and economic systems. Many socialist economies organised trade through state planning and separate institutional networks. Colonial empires were also being dismantled, creating new states with different economic strategies.
Decolonisation and the Global South
Between the 1940s and the 1970s, large parts of Asia, Africa, the Caribbean and the Pacific gained independence from European empires. New governments inherited economies often structured around colonial trade patterns, such as exporting a narrow range of primary commodities and importing manufactured goods.
There was no single post-colonial development strategy. Some states used import substitution industrialization to protect new domestic industries. Others later pursued export-oriented industrialisation. Governments also formed new political coalitions, including the Non-Aligned Movement, and demanded reforms to international economic relations. In the 1960s and 1970s, debates about a New International Economic Order focused on commodity prices, development finance, technology transfer and the bargaining power of poorer countries.
Decolonisation therefore expanded the number of sovereign actors in world politics while also exposing unequal structures inherited from empire. It is important to avoid treating the Global South as one homogeneous group: countries differed greatly in resources, institutions, political systems and development paths.
Phase Two: Technology, Crisis and Liberalisation, 1950s–1980s
The Container Revolution
One of the most important technologies of modern globalisation was visually simple: the standardised shipping container. Containerisation reduced the time and labour needed to move cargo between ships, trains and trucks. It also encouraged the construction of specialised ports, cranes, warehouses and logistics systems.
The first modern container shipping experiments in the United States took place in the 1950s. Over subsequent decades, standardisation allowed containers to be transferred between transport modes with far less handling of individual packages. The result was not an automatic global market, but a dramatic reduction in many transport and coordination costs.
Ports became crucial nodes in global networks. Their importance shows why globalisation has a physical geography: goods still depend on ships, roads, railways, canals, warehouses, energy and labour.
.jpg)
Jets, Telecommunications and Time-Space Compression
Jet aircraft made long-distance passenger travel faster and air freight more practical for high-value or time-sensitive goods. Telecommunications reduced the cost of coordinating business across distance. Later, satellites, fax machines, computers, fibre-optic cables and the internet transformed the speed at which information could move.
Geographers sometimes describe this as time-space compression: technological change makes distant places functionally closer because travel and communication require less time. This does not make geography irrelevant. Instead, it changes which locations are valuable and creates new hubs, bottlenecks and inequalities.
The Breakdown of the Bretton Woods Monetary System
The fixed-exchange-rate system came under increasing pressure in the 1960s. In 1971, the United States suspended the dollar's convertibility into gold. By the early 1970s, the original Bretton Woods exchange-rate system had effectively ended and major currencies moved toward floating rates.
The 1970s also brought oil-price shocks, inflation, unemployment and slower growth in many industrial economies. These crises did not end globalisation, but they changed its policy environment. Governments increasingly debated deregulation, privatisation, monetary policy, financial liberalisation and the role of the state.
Market Reform and the 1980s
During the 1980s, many governments reduced restrictions on trade, finance and foreign direct investment. The changes had different causes in different countries: debt crises, ideological shifts, pressure from creditors, attempts to attract investment, technological change and dissatisfaction with previous development models all played roles.
Structural adjustment programmes associated with the IMF and World Bank became highly controversial. Supporters argued that macroeconomic stabilisation and market reforms could restore growth and creditworthiness. Critics argued that rapid austerity, privatisation or trade opening could weaken public services, increase unemployment or reduce policy autonomy. A strong historical answer should identify the country, period and policy rather than treating all adjustment programmes as identical.
China's economic reforms after 1978 created another major pathway. The government retained one-party political rule while gradually introducing market mechanisms, encouraging foreign investment and establishing special economic zones. Shenzhen became a powerful symbol of export-oriented industrial growth and urban transformation.
Phase Three: Acceleration after the Cold War, 1989–2008
The End of the Soviet Bloc
The fall of communist governments in Eastern Europe in 1989 and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 changed the political geography of the world economy. Many former centrally planned economies moved toward market systems and expanded trade and investment links with Western Europe and the wider world.
The fall of the Berlin Wall was therefore more than a political symbol. It marked a major shift in the institutional boundaries that had divided Europe during the Cold War. However, economic transition was uneven and often socially disruptive. Privatisation, inflation, unemployment and new inequalities affected countries in different ways.
Regional Integration
Globalisation did not eliminate regions. In many cases, regional integration became one route into the global economy. The European Community developed into the European Union, deepening its single market and later adopting a common currency among many member states. The North American Free Trade Agreement linked Canada, Mexico and the United States more closely from 1994. Other regional organisations also expanded trade cooperation.
Regional integration can lower barriers within a group while maintaining common rules or external barriers toward outsiders. This is why regionalisation and globalisation can reinforce each other in some cases and compete in others.
From GATT to the WTO
The Uruguay Round of trade negotiations, launched in 1986, ended with the 1994 Marrakesh Agreement. The World Trade Organization began work on 1 January 1995. Compared with the older GATT framework, the WTO covered a wider range of issues, including trade in services and aspects of intellectual property, and created stronger procedures for settling trade disputes.
China joined the WTO in 2001. Its accession accelerated an already powerful expansion of manufacturing trade and investment networks. Chinese firms, foreign multinational companies, overseas consumers and governments all became part of increasingly complex value chains. China's growth was driven by many factors, including domestic reforms, high investment, education, infrastructure, urbanisation and integration into global markets; WTO membership should not be treated as the sole cause.
Global Value Chains and Multinational Corporations
A global value chain divides the stages of producing a good or service across different countries. Research and design might occur in one economy, specialised components in several others, final assembly somewhere else, and marketing and after-sales services in major consumer markets.
This model expanded rapidly after 1990. Lower trade barriers, container shipping, better communications, foreign direct investment and management software made it easier to coordinate production across borders. By the late 2010s, the World Bank estimated that global value chains accounted for almost half of world trade.
Multinational corporations became major organisers of these networks, but they were not the only actors. Suppliers, logistics companies, banks, standards organisations, governments and workers also shaped outcomes. The distribution of value along a supply chain could be highly unequal: design, branding, software or finance often captured a larger share of profits than routine assembly.
Digital Globalisation
The internet added a new layer to global integration. Email and web services reduced communication costs. Cloud computing, digital platforms, video conferencing and online marketplaces made it easier to trade services and coordinate production. Some services, such as software development, design, accounting or customer support, can cross borders without a physical shipment.
Undersea fibre-optic cables carry much of the world's international data traffic. This infrastructure shows that the digital world still depends on physical systems and strategic locations.
Digital globalisation also produces new inequalities and political questions. Access to fast networks, digital skills, data centres and computing power is uneven. Governments debate privacy, cybersecurity, data localisation, taxation of digital companies, online misinformation and the power of large platforms. The digital divide therefore exists both within and between countries.
People, Culture and Everyday Life
Globalisation is not only about trade statistics. Migration connects labour markets and families across borders. Migrants send remittances, create businesses, transfer skills and build social networks. At the same time, migration can become politically contested, especially when housing, public services, wages, identity or border control are already sensitive issues.
Cultural globalisation is similarly complex. Hollywood films, Korean pop music, Japanese animation, football leagues, international fashion and global food brands circulate across borders. But cultural exchange does not simply erase local identities. People remix imported forms with local languages, traditions and tastes. Scholars use the term hybridisation to describe these mixtures.
Global brands can symbolise cultural convergence, yet consumers also use them differently in different places. A careful analysis therefore avoids assuming that globalisation automatically produces one uniform culture.
Winners, Losers and Unequal Effects
Economic theory explains why trade can raise total income through specialisation, competition and larger markets. Historical experience also shows that the gains are not distributed automatically or equally.
Export industries may expand while import-competing industries contract. Consumers can benefit from lower prices and more variety, but workers in exposed regions may face job losses or wage pressure. Some developing economies used export growth to support rapid industrialisation, while others remained dependent on commodities or low-value activities. Within successful economies, gains could still be distributed unevenly.
Global extreme poverty fell sharply after 1990, especially in East Asia, during a period of rapid trade integration. Trade and global value chains contributed to growth in many countries, but this does not prove that globalisation alone caused poverty reduction. Domestic reforms, education, infrastructure, technology, demographic change and social policy also mattered.
The key question is therefore not simply Does globalisation create winners or losers? A stronger question is: Which groups gain or lose, through which mechanism, over what time period, and what policies can change the distribution?
Labour, Rights and Social Standards
Global supply chains connect workers who operate under very different labour laws, wage levels and bargaining systems. Critics of globalisation have highlighted unsafe factories, weak unions, child labour, forced labour and the pressure to keep production costs low. Supporters of trade-led development note that industrial jobs can still pay more than available alternatives and may help economies move into higher-productivity activities.
These arguments are not mutually exclusive. A job can represent economic progress compared with one alternative while still failing to meet acceptable labour standards. Governments, trade unions, consumers, firms and international organisations therefore debate minimum standards, corporate responsibility, supply-chain transparency and workers' rights.
Environment and Climate
Globalisation affects the environment in several ways. More production and transport can increase energy use, emissions, waste and resource extraction. Global markets can shift environmentally damaging activities to places with weaker regulation. Long supply chains can also encourage disposable consumption.
At the same time, international trade can spread cleaner technologies, renewable-energy components and environmental standards. Global scientific cooperation helps monitor climate change, and international agreements can coordinate action across borders.
The environmental effect of globalisation therefore depends on scale, technology, regulation, energy systems and consumer behaviour. A container ship can move goods efficiently per tonne-kilometre while the total volume of shipping still creates large environmental impacts.
Crisis and Contagion
Greater integration can transmit shocks quickly. The 1997 Asian financial crisis demonstrated how capital movements, exchange-rate pressures and investor expectations could destabilise several economies. The 2007–2008 financial crisis began in the United States but spread through globally connected banks, securities markets and trade.
After 2008, world trade recovered, but the growth of global value chains became slower than in the previous two decades. Governments and companies began to pay more attention to resilience, financial regulation and the risks of dependence on highly concentrated supply networks.
The 2020s: Deglobalisation or Reconfiguration?
The COVID-19 pandemic disrupted factories, shipping, tourism and migration. Shortages of medical supplies and semiconductors drew attention to supply-chain concentration. Russia's full-scale invasion of Ukraine in 2022 further affected energy, food, finance and transport networks. Strategic competition between major powers has also increased controls on some technologies and investments.
Terms such as reshoring, nearshoring and friend-shoring describe attempts to move production closer to home, nearer to final markets or toward politically trusted partners. Governments have also used industrial policy more actively in sectors such as semiconductors, batteries, energy and critical minerals.
These trends do not mean that all international exchange is disappearing. Digital services, data flows, tourism, migration, trade and investment remain important. A more accurate question is whether globalisation is becoming more selective, regional, regulated and security-conscious.
The 2020s therefore illustrate a central theme of this course: globalisation is not an unstoppable natural force. It is a changing political and economic arrangement that can be reorganised when states, firms and societies alter their priorities.
A Timeline of Key Turning Points
| Period | Development | Why it matters for globalisation |
|---|---|---|
| 1944–1947 | Bretton Woods institutions and GATT are created | New rules and institutions support post-war monetary cooperation, reconstruction and trade liberalisation |
| 1950s–1960s | Containerisation, jet travel and post-war growth expand | Transport becomes cheaper and faster while trade rises |
| 1940s–1970s | Decolonisation creates many new sovereign states | Global economic governance becomes more politically diverse and development debates intensify |
| 1971–1973 | The Bretton Woods exchange-rate system breaks down | Monetary relations become more flexible and financial volatility increases |
| Late 1970s–1980s | China reforms, financial liberalisation and market-oriented policies expand | More economies open to foreign trade and investment |
| 1989–1991 | Communist governments collapse in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union dissolves | Large regions become more integrated with global markets |
| 1995 | The WTO is established | Trade rules expand into services and intellectual property, with stronger dispute procedures |
| 2001 | China joins the WTO | Manufacturing and investment networks become even more deeply integrated |
| 2007–2009 | Global financial crisis | Financial interdependence transmits a severe shock across borders |
| 2020s | Pandemic shocks, war, strategic rivalry and climate policy reshape supply chains | Resilience and security become more important alongside efficiency |
How to Evaluate Globalisation
When you evaluate a claim about globalisation, use four tests.
- Scale: Is the claim about the world, a region, one country, one industry or one social group?
- Time: Does the claim describe the 1950s, the 1990s, the 2020s or the entire post-war period?
- Mechanism: Does the evidence show how trade, technology, policy, finance or migration produced the claimed effect?
- Distribution: Who gains, who loses, and are the effects short-term or long-term?
For example, the statement “trade destroys jobs” is too broad. Trade can reduce employment in some import-competing industries while increasing employment in export industries, logistics or services. Technology may simultaneously change the same labour market. A strong answer separates these mechanisms and uses evidence.
Research and Source Check
The following sources are useful starting points because they provide institutional history, data or research rather than unsourced opinion.
- World Trade Organization: History of the multilateral trading system
- World Trade Organization: Evolution of trade under the WTO
- World Bank: World Development Report 2020 on global value chains
- IMF Finance and Development: Globalization Today
- IMF: Digital collection on the history of the IMF
When you use institutional sources, remember that institutions also have perspectives and interests. Compare their data and explanations with academic research, primary sources and critical scholarship.
Interactive Tasks
Quiz: Test Your Knowledge
Which institutions were designed at the Bretton Woods Conference to support post-war monetary cooperation and reconstruction? (IMF and World Bank) (!WTO and OECD) (!NATO and Warsaw Pact) (!European Union and ASEAN)
What was the main role of GATT after 1947? (To provide trade rules and negotiate lower barriers) (!To create a single global currency) (!To manage military alliances) (!To replace national governments)
Why did containerisation accelerate global trade? (It reduced handling time and transport costs) (!It ended the need for ports) (!It eliminated all customs checks) (!It made air freight unnecessary)
What major monetary change occurred in 1971? (The United States suspended dollar convertibility into gold) (!The WTO replaced GATT) (!China joined the WTO) (!The euro entered circulation)
When did the World Trade Organization begin operating? (1995) (!1945) (!1971) (!2008)
Why is China's WTO accession in 2001 historically significant? (It deepened China's integration into global trade networks) (!It ended China's market reforms) (!It created the European single market) (!It restored the gold standard)
What is a global value chain? (A production process divided across several countries) (!A tariff applied equally to all imports) (!A fixed exchange rate between two currencies) (!A migration route controlled by one company)
What did the 2008 financial crisis demonstrate about globalisation? (Interdependence can transmit economic shocks across borders) (!Financial markets had become completely national) (!Trade no longer connected major economies) (!International banks had disappeared)
Which infrastructure is central to digital globalisation? (Submarine fibre optic cables) (!Steam locomotives) (!Medieval caravan routes) (!Telegraph horses)
Which statement best describes globalisation since 1945? (It is uneven and shaped by policy technology and power) (!It is an automatic process with identical effects everywhere) (!It only concerns trade in physical goods) (!It has moved in one direction without interruption)
Memory Game
| Bretton Woods | Post-war framework for monetary cooperation and reconstruction |
| GATT | Multilateral agreement that reduced trade barriers before the WTO |
| Containerisation | Standardised cargo transport across ships trains and trucks |
| Liberalisation | Reduction of government restrictions on trade finance or investment |
| Value chain | Connected stages through which a product or service is created |
| Interdependence | Mutual connection that can create both benefits and vulnerability |
| Remittance | Money sent by a migrant to people in another country |
| Reshoring | Moving production back toward a firm's home country |
Drag and Drop
| Match the correct terms. | Topic |
|---|---|
| Bretton Woods system | Fixed but adjustable exchange rates in the early post-war order |
| Container revolution | Lower-cost movement of standardised freight |
| WTO era | Broader multilateral rules for goods services and intellectual property |
| Digital networks | Rapid cross-border coordination and online service trade |
| Supply-chain resilience | Efforts to reduce vulnerability to concentrated production |
...
Crossword Puzzle
| Container | What standardised box transformed modern freight transport? |
| Tariffs | What taxes on imported goods were repeatedly reduced through trade negotiations? |
| Outsourcing | What term describes contracting work or production to an external supplier? |
| Migration | What is the movement of people from one place or country to another called? |
| Internet | What network sharply reduced the cost of global digital communication? |
| Liberalisation | What process reduces restrictions on trade investment or finance? |
LearningApps
Cloze Text
Open-Ended Tasks
Easy
- Product Journey Map: Choose one everyday product, research at least four stages in its international journey, and create a labelled map showing where materials, components, assembly and sales take place.
- Globalisation Photo Essay: Create a six-image photo essay from your local area that shows visible signs of global connections, then write a short caption explaining each image.
- Family or Community Interview: Interview someone about how travel, migration, imported goods, technology or work has changed during their lifetime, and compare their experience with one course theme.
- Two-Minute Explainer: Record a short video explaining why the shipping container mattered for globalisation, using one concrete example and one limitation.
Standard
- Trade Data Investigation: Use WTO or World Bank data to compare the trade openness of two countries over at least twenty years, graph the change, and explain two possible causes.
- Policy Debate: Prepare a structured classroom debate on whether governments should prioritise low consumer prices or resilient domestic supply chains in strategically important industries.
- Global Brand Case Study: Trace how one multinational brand organises production, marketing and labour across borders, then identify where the largest risks and benefits appear.
- Local Globalisation Field Visit: Visit or virtually investigate a port, logistics centre, airport cargo terminal, fair-trade shop, migration museum or internationally active company and produce a report connecting the site to at least three course concepts.
Advanced
- Competing Interpretations Essay: Write an evidence-based essay comparing a liberal, dependency or world-systems, and labour or environmental interpretation of post-1945 globalisation.
- Supply Chain Stress Test: Design a scenario in which a major port closes, a semiconductor producer stops exporting or an undersea cable is damaged, then model how the shock could spread through at least five connected actors.
- Oral History Project: Conduct and transcribe two interviews with people from different generations about work, consumption, migration or communication, then analyse change and continuity without treating personal memory as automatically representative.
- Future of Globalisation Documentary: Produce a five-to-eight-minute documentary that uses verified data, expert sources and original narration to answer whether the 2020s represent deglobalisation, regionalisation or a reconfigured form of globalisation.
Learning Assessment
- Causation Assessment: Explain why post-war globalisation accelerated by ranking five causes and defending your ranking with evidence and counterarguments.
- Turning Point Assessment: Decide whether 1971, 1989, 1995, 2001 or 2008 was the most important turning point in globalisation since 1945, and justify your choice while addressing at least one alternative.
- Continuity and Change Assessment: Compare globalisation in the 1960s with globalisation in the 2000s, identifying what changed in technology and institutions and what remained dependent on states and physical infrastructure.
- Distribution Assessment: Analyse one case in which trade or investment created both gains and losses for different groups, and propose a policy response that changes distribution without assuming all trade must stop.
- Source Evaluation Assessment: Compare an institutional report, an academic argument and a first-person account on one globalisation issue, evaluating purpose, evidence, scale and limitations.
- Crisis Transfer Assessment: Use the 2008 crisis or the COVID-19 pandemic to explain how interdependence can transmit shocks and how resilience policies can create new costs or trade-offs.
- Future Scenario Assessment: Build two plausible scenarios for globalisation in 2035 and identify which political, technological and environmental developments would make each scenario more likely.
Evidence of Learning
| Area | Evidence you should be able to produce |
|---|---|
| Knowledge | Accurate explanations of major phases, institutions, technologies and turning points from 1945 to the 2020s |
| Historical reasoning | Arguments about causation, change, continuity, consequence and significance that use specific evidence |
| Data literacy | Correct reading of trade, investment or migration data with attention to units, time periods and correlation versus causation |
| Source criticism | Evaluation of who produced a source, for what purpose, with what evidence and with which limitations |
| Perspective | Comparison of different interpretations of globalisation without reducing the debate to a simple pro or anti position |
| Products | Maps, graphs, essays, interviews, case studies, debates, presentations or videos that communicate findings clearly |
| Transfer | Application of course concepts to a new product, crisis, country, technology or policy problem |
OERs on the Topic
Useful related open resources include History of globalization, Economic history of the world, International trade, Global value chain, Decolonization, World Trade Organization, International Monetary Fund, European Union, Containerization and Digital divide.
Linked Learning Areas
The topic links History, Economics, Geography, Politics, Sociology, Business studies, Media literacy and Environmental studies. It is especially suitable for upper-secondary courses that ask you to connect historical change with present-day global issues.
