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{{T}}
[[Category:English]]
[[Category:Mitosis and Meiosis]]

{{BR}}
= Introduction =

Every living organism depends on cells that can pass genetic information to new cells. Two major processes make this possible in eukaryotes: [[English:Mitosis|mitosis]] and [[English:Meiosis|meiosis]]. They use some of the same cellular machinery, but they solve different biological problems.

'''Mitosis''' supports growth, tissue repair, cell replacement, and asexual reproduction in many organisms. One nuclear division usually produces two daughter nuclei with the same chromosome sets as the parent nucleus. '''Meiosis''' is a specialized form of cell division connected with sexual reproduction. One round of DNA replication is followed by two nuclear divisions, producing cells with half the original number of chromosome sets.

This aiMOOC is designed for '''Grades 9–10'''. By the end, you should be able to explain the stages of both processes, follow the movement of chromosomes, distinguish sister chromatids from homologous chromosomes, compare diploid and haploid cells, and explain how meiosis contributes to genetic variation.

[[File:The Cell Cycle.svg|500px|frameless|center]]

The cell-cycle diagram above gives you the larger context for mitosis. Most of a typical dividing cell's cycle is spent in [[English:Interphase|interphase]], when the cell grows, performs normal functions, and copies its DNA before division.

{{#ev:youtube|https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=skPOXcVvS5c|500|center}}

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= Foundations: DNA, Chromosomes, and Ploidy =

To understand cell division, start with the way a eukaryotic cell packages [[English:DNA|DNA]]. DNA is organized into [[English:Chromosome|chromosomes]]. Before replication, each chromosome contains one long DNA molecule associated with proteins. Before a cell enters mitosis or meiosis, its DNA is copied during the S phase of interphase.

After DNA replication, each chromosome consists of two '''sister chromatids''' joined together. The sister chromatids are copies made from the same original chromosome. They should not be confused with '''homologous chromosomes'''. Homologous chromosomes are a matching pair, one inherited from each biological parent in a diploid organism. They carry the same kinds of genes in corresponding locations, although the versions of those genes may differ.

'''Diploid''' means that a cell has two sets of chromosomes. '''Haploid''' means that a cell has one set. In humans, most nucleated somatic cells are diploid with 46 chromosomes, while mature eggs and sperm are haploid with 23 chromosomes. The general ideas of diploidy and haploidy also apply to many other sexually reproducing organisms, although their chromosome numbers differ.

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== DNA Replication Before Division ==

A key idea is that '''DNA replication happens before chromosome separation'''. During S phase, the DNA molecule of each chromosome is copied. This increases the amount of DNA, but it does not immediately create a new pair of homologous chromosomes. Instead, each replicated chromosome is made of two sister chromatids.

Before mitosis, DNA is replicated once and the nucleus divides once. Before meiosis, DNA is also replicated once, but the nucleus then divides twice. There is no second round of DNA replication between meiosis I and meiosis II.

This distinction helps you avoid a common mistake: counting chromatids as if they were always separate chromosomes. A replicated chromosome is still counted as one chromosome while its two sister chromatids remain joined. When the sister chromatids separate, each becomes an individual chromosome.

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= Mitosis =

[[English:Mitosis|Mitosis]] is nuclear division that maintains the chromosome-set number of the parent nucleus. In a typical diploid body cell, mitosis produces two diploid daughter nuclei. The daughter cells formed after cytokinesis are usually genetically very similar to the parent cell and to each other, apart from mutations or other rare changes.

Mitosis matters when an organism grows from a fertilized egg, replaces worn-out cells, repairs damaged tissues, or reproduces asexually through mitotic cell division.

[[File:Mitosis schematic diagram-en.svg|500px|frameless|center]]

{{#ev:youtube|https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f-ldPgEfAHI|500|center}}

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== Stages of Mitosis ==

Interphase prepares a cell for division but is not itself a stage of mitosis. The stages of mitosis form a continuous process, even though textbooks divide them into named phases so that you can describe what is happening.

'''Prophase:''' Chromatin condenses into visible chromosomes. Each replicated chromosome contains two sister chromatids. The mitotic spindle begins to form, and the centrosomes move apart in animal cells.

'''Prometaphase:''' In descriptions that treat prometaphase as a separate stage, the nuclear envelope breaks down and spindle microtubules attach to chromosome structures called kinetochores.

'''Metaphase:''' Replicated chromosomes line up near the middle of the cell. Sister chromatids are attached to spindle fibers from opposite poles.

'''Anaphase:''' The sister chromatids separate and move toward opposite poles. Once separated, each chromatid is considered an individual chromosome.

'''Telophase:''' Chromosomes arrive at opposite poles and begin to decondense. New nuclear envelopes form around the chromosome sets.

'''Cytokinesis:''' The cytoplasm divides. Animal cells usually form a cleavage furrow, while plant cells form a cell plate that develops into a new separating wall. Cytokinesis is often discussed with mitosis, but it is the division of the cytoplasm rather than the division of the nucleus.

[[File:0331 Stages of Mitosis and Cytokinesis.jpg|500px|frameless|center]]

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== Mitosis Under the Microscope ==

Actively dividing tissues make mitosis visible. Onion root tips are often used in school laboratories because cells near the root tip divide frequently. When stained chromosomes are visible, you can identify cells in different stages by chromosome position and appearance.

[[File:Onion root mitosis.jpg|500px|frameless|center]]

A useful measurement is the '''mitotic index''': the proportion of observed cells that are in mitosis. You can estimate it by dividing the number of cells visibly undergoing mitosis by the total number of cells counted, then converting the result to a percentage. A larger mitotic index means a larger fraction of the observed cells were dividing at the moment the tissue was preserved.

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= Meiosis =

[[English:Meiosis|Meiosis]] is a specialized form of nuclear division in sexually reproducing organisms. It reduces the number of chromosome sets by half. In many animals, meiosis produces haploid cells that develop into gametes. When two haploid gametes fuse during [[English:Fertilization|fertilization]], the diploid chromosome-set number is restored in the zygote.

Meiosis begins after one round of DNA replication. It then proceeds through '''meiosis I''' and '''meiosis II'''. The most important difference from mitosis appears in meiosis I: homologous chromosomes pair and then separate.

[[File:Meiosis Stages.svg|500px|frameless|center]]

{{#ev:youtube|https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VzDMG7ke69g|500|center}}

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== Meiosis I: Separating Homologous Chromosomes ==

'''Prophase I:''' Homologous chromosomes pair closely in a process called synapsis. Each paired unit contains four chromatids. Crossing over can occur between nonsister chromatids of homologous chromosomes, exchanging corresponding DNA segments and creating new combinations of alleles.

'''Metaphase I:''' Homologous chromosome pairs line up near the middle of the cell. The orientation of each pair is largely independent of the orientation of other pairs.

'''Anaphase I:''' Homologous chromosomes move to opposite poles. Sister chromatids remain joined at this stage.

'''Telophase I and cytokinesis:''' The first division may form two cells. Each cell has one chromosome from each homologous pair, so the chromosome-set number has been reduced. Each chromosome still consists of two sister chromatids.

[[File:Meiosis main steps.svg|500px|frameless|center]]

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== Meiosis II: Separating Sister Chromatids ==

Meiosis II resembles mitosis in an important way: sister chromatids separate. However, the cells entering meiosis II are already haploid with respect to homologous chromosome sets, and their chromosomes are still replicated.

'''Prophase II:''' A spindle forms in each cell, and chromosomes prepare for a second separation.

'''Metaphase II:''' Chromosomes line up individually near the middle of each cell.

'''Anaphase II:''' Sister chromatids separate and move toward opposite poles.

'''Telophase II and cytokinesis:''' New nuclei form and the cytoplasm divides. In the simplified model, the overall result is four haploid cell products from one original diploid cell. In animal oogenesis, however, cytokinesis is unequal, so one large egg and smaller polar bodies form rather than four equally sized gametes.

There is '''no DNA replication between meiosis I and meiosis II'''. This is essential: replication followed by two divisions is what allows chromosome-set number to be reduced.

[[File:Diagram of meiosis.svg|500px|frameless|center]]

{{#ev:youtube|https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pj1oFx42d48|500|center}}

{{BR}}
= How Meiosis Creates Genetic Variation =

Meiosis creates new combinations of genetic information mainly through two mechanisms.

'''Crossing over''' occurs during prophase I when nonsister chromatids of homologous chromosomes exchange corresponding DNA segments. This process creates recombinant chromosomes containing combinations of alleles that were not present together on either original homolog.

'''Independent assortment''' results from the way homologous pairs orient at metaphase I. The maternal and paternal homologs of one chromosome pair can face either pole independently of many other chromosome pairs. Their later separation therefore produces many possible combinations of chromosomes in haploid cells.

Random fertilization adds another source of variation after meiosis because any one genetically distinct gamete from one parent may fuse with any one genetically distinct gamete from the other parent.

[[File:Pair-pull-part mitosis and meiosis.png|500px|frameless|center]]

The image above emphasizes a shared mechanical idea: chromosomes are organized, attached to spindle structures, and then separated. What differs is '''what is paired and what is separated'''. In mitosis, sister chromatids separate. In meiosis I, homologous chromosomes separate. In meiosis II, sister chromatids separate.

{{BR}}
= Comparing Mitosis and Meiosis =

{| class="wikitable"
! Feature
! Mitosis
! Meiosis
|-
| Main biological role
| Growth, repair, replacement, and many forms of asexual reproduction
| Production of haploid cells for sexual reproduction
|-
| DNA replication
| Once before division
| Once before meiosis I
|-
| Number of nuclear divisions
| One
| Two
|-
| Pairing of homologous chromosomes
| Normally absent
| Occurs in prophase I
|-
| Crossing over between homologs
| Not a normal feature of mitosis
| Common feature of prophase I
|-
| What separates first
| Sister chromatids
| Homologous chromosomes
|-
| Typical final products from one diploid starting cell
| Two diploid daughter cells
| Four haploid cells
|-
| Genetic similarity of products
| Usually very similar to the parent and to each other
| Usually genetically different from the parent and from each other
|}

[[File:Diagram of mitosis.svg|500px|frameless|center]]

A good comparison question is not simply “Which process has more stages?” Both can be divided into many named stages. Instead, trace one homologous chromosome pair. Ask when DNA is copied, whether homologs pair, what separates in the first division, and how many chromosome sets remain in the products.

{{BR}}
= Errors, Checkpoints, and Consequences =

Cell division must be carefully controlled. During the cell cycle, checkpoint systems help prevent cells from moving forward when DNA is damaged or when chromosomes are not attached correctly to the spindle. These control systems reduce errors but do not eliminate them completely.

In '''mitosis''', errors in chromosome separation can create daughter cells with abnormal chromosome numbers. If mutations affect genes that regulate cell growth and division, cells may divide when they should not. Cancer is a complex disease involving accumulated genetic and cellular changes; a single mitotic error does not automatically cause cancer.

In '''meiosis''', failure of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids to separate correctly is called '''nondisjunction'''. Nondisjunction can produce gametes with an extra or missing chromosome. If such a gamete participates in fertilization, the resulting zygote may have an abnormal chromosome number, a condition called aneuploidy.

These examples show why accurate chromosome movement matters: cell division is not only about making more cells. It is about distributing genetic information in the correct amounts.

{{BR}}
= A Strategy for Solving Cell-Division Problems =

When you face a diagram or exam question, use a chromosome-tracking strategy.

# [[English:DNA replication|DNA replication]]: Decide whether the chromosomes have been copied and whether each chromosome has one chromatid or two.
# [[English:Ploidy|Ploidy]]: Decide how many sets of homologous chromosomes are present.
# [[English:Chromosome pairing|Chromosome pairing]]: Look for paired homologs. Their pairing strongly suggests meiosis I.
# [[English:Chromosome separation|Chromosome separation]]: Identify whether homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids are moving apart.
# [[English:Cell products|Cell products]]: Count how many nuclei or cells form and determine whether their chromosome-set number is maintained or reduced.

A useful model can be built with two colors of paper strips. Let one color represent a chromosome inherited from one biological parent and another color represent its homolog from the other parent. Duplicate each strip to make sister chromatids, then physically model mitosis, meiosis I, and meiosis II. The model makes the different meanings of “pair” much easier to see.

{{BR}}
= Key Ideas =

'''Mitosis''' preserves chromosome-set number and usually creates two genetically similar daughter nuclei. '''Meiosis''' reduces chromosome-set number and usually creates four genetically varied haploid cells. DNA replication occurs before both processes, but meiosis has two nuclear divisions. Homologous chromosomes separate in meiosis I, while sister chromatids separate in mitosis and meiosis II. Crossing over and independent assortment during meiosis help generate genetic variation.

{{BR}}
= Interactive Tasks =

{{BR}}
== Quiz: Test Your Knowledge ==

{{MC}}

'''Which event occurs during anaphase of mitosis?'''
(Sister chromatids separate)
(!Homologous chromosomes pair)
(!DNA is replicated)
(!Crossing over begins)

{{E}}
<br>

{{MC}}

'''What is the usual result of mitosis in a diploid body cell?'''
(Two diploid daughter cells)
(!Four haploid daughter cells)
(!Two haploid daughter cells)
(!Four diploid daughter cells)

{{E}}
<br>

{{MC}}

'''Which event is characteristic of prophase I of meiosis?'''
(Homologous chromosomes pair)
(!Sister chromatids separate)
(!DNA replication begins)
(!Gametes fuse)

{{E}}
<br>

{{MC}}

'''What separates during anaphase I of meiosis?'''
(Homologous chromosomes)
(!Sister chromatids)
(!Centromeres from DNA)
(!Cell membranes)

{{E}}
<br>

{{MC}}

'''What separates during anaphase II of meiosis?'''
(Sister chromatids)
(!Homologous chromosome pairs)
(!Alleles from genes)
(!Nuclei from cytoplasm)

{{E}}
<br>

{{MC}}

'''When does DNA replication occur in relation to meiosis?'''
(Before meiosis I)
(!Between meiosis I and meiosis II)
(!During anaphase I)
(!After meiosis II)

{{E}}
<br>

{{MC}}

'''Which statement best describes a haploid cell?'''
(It has one set of chromosomes)
(!It has no chromosomes)
(!It has four sets of chromosomes)
(!It always has replicated chromosomes)

{{E}}
<br>

{{MC}}

'''How does crossing over contribute to variation?'''
(It creates new allele combinations)
(!It doubles chromosome number)
(!It prevents DNA replication)
(!It makes all gametes identical)

{{E}}
<br>

{{MC}}

'''Which process normally maintains chromosome-set number?'''
(Mitosis)
(!Meiosis)
(!Fertilization)
(!Crossing over)

{{E}}
<br>

{{MC}}

'''Why is meiosis important in sexual reproduction?'''
(It produces cells with reduced chromosome sets)
(!It makes all offspring genetically identical)
(!It copies DNA twice before division)
(!It prevents chromosome pairing)

{{E}}
<br>

{{BR}}
== Memory Game ==

<div class="memo-quiz">
{|
|-
| Mitosis || Nuclear division that usually yields two genetically similar nuclei
|-
| Meiosis || Two nuclear divisions that usually yield four genetically varied haploid cells
|-
| Homologs || Matching chromosomes carrying the same kinds of genes
|-
| Chromatid || One copied DNA-containing half of a replicated chromosome
|-
| Cytokinesis || Physical division of the cytoplasm
|-
| Tetrad || Four-chromatid structure formed when a replicated chromosome pair aligns
|-
| Recombination || Exchange process that creates new combinations of genetic variants
|}
{{E}}
<br>

{{BR}}
== Drag and Drop ==

<div class="lueckentext-quiz">

{| class="wikitable"
! Match the correct terms.
! Topic
|-
| '''Sister chromatids'''
| Separate during mitotic anaphase and meiotic anaphase II
|-
| '''Homologous chromosomes'''
| Separate during meiotic anaphase I
|-
| '''Crossing over'''
| Exchanges DNA between nonsister chromatids during prophase I
|-
| '''DNA replication'''
| Occurs once before mitosis or before meiosis I
|-
| '''Cytokinesis'''
| Divides the cytoplasm into separate cells
|}
{{E}}

<br>
...
<br />

{{BR}}
== Crossword Puzzle ==

<div class="kreuzwort-quiz">
{|
|-
| Metaphase || During which stage do chromosomes line up near the middle of a dividing cell?
|-
| Chromatid || What is one copied half of a replicated chromosome called?
|-
| Cytokinesis || What process divides the cytoplasm after nuclear division?
|-
| Homologous || Which word describes matching chromosomes that carry the same kinds of genes?
|-
| Recombination || What process creates new allele combinations through DNA exchange?
|-
| Haploid || What word describes a cell with one chromosome set?
|}
{{E}}
<br>

{{BR}}
== LearningApps ==

<iframe> https://learningapps.org/index.php?s=Mitosis+and+Meiosis </iframe>

{{BR}}
== Cloze Text ==

<quiz display=simple>
{'''Complete the text.'''<br>
|type="{}"}
Before either division pathway, DNA is copied during { S phase }. Mitosis normally produces { two daughter cells }. During mitotic anaphase, { sister chromatids } move to opposite poles. Meiosis has { two nuclear divisions }. During prophase I, homologous chromosomes can exchange DNA by { crossing over }. During anaphase I, { homologous chromosomes } separate. The final products of meiosis are usually { haploid }. Random orientation of homologous pairs produces variation through { independent assortment }.
</quiz>

<br>

{{BR}}
= Open-Ended Tasks =

{{BR}}
=== Easy ===
# [[English:Cell Division Flipbook|Cell Division Flipbook]]: Create a paper or digital flipbook that shows prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, and cytokinesis in mitosis. Add one sentence explaining what happens to the chromosomes on every page.
# [[English:Chromosome Model|Chromosome Model]]: Build a simple model of one homologous chromosome pair before and after DNA replication. Label homologs, sister chromatids, and centromeres, then explain the difference between a homolog and a chromatid.
# [[English:Microscope Stage Hunt|Microscope Stage Hunt]]: Use a prepared onion root-tip slide, a classroom image set, or a teacher-approved virtual microscope to find examples of interphase and at least three stages of mitosis. Make an annotated image or sketch sheet.
# [[English:Cell Division Vocabulary Audio|Cell Division Vocabulary Audio]]: Record a two-minute audio explanation that correctly uses the terms diploid, haploid, chromosome, chromatid, mitosis, and meiosis.

{{BR}}
=== Standard ===
# [[English:Mitosis Photo Story|Mitosis Photo Story]]: Produce a six-frame photo story using objects, drawings, or people as chromosome models. Show how replicated chromosomes line up and how sister chromatids separate.
# [[English:Mitotic Index Investigation|Mitotic Index Investigation]]: Count dividing and nondividing cells in a teacher-provided root-tip image, calculate a mitotic index, and write a short interpretation explaining what the result tells you about the tissue.
# [[English:Biology Interview|Biology Interview]]: Interview a biology teacher, laboratory technician, medical laboratory scientist, plant scientist, or university student about where cell division matters in their work. Summarize three insights and connect each one to mitosis or meiosis.
# [[English:Mitosis and Meiosis Comparison Poster|Mitosis and Meiosis Comparison Poster]]: Design a one-page comparison poster that traces the same homologous chromosome pair through both processes. Use arrows to show what separates and explain the final ploidy.

{{BR}}
=== Advanced ===
# [[English:Nondisjunction Model|Nondisjunction Model]]: Create a physical or digital model showing one normal meiotic division and one division with nondisjunction. Compare the chromosome content of the resulting cells and explain how the error changes possible gametes.
# [[English:Genetic Variation Research Poster|Genetic Variation Research Poster]]: Research crossing over and independent assortment using at least three reliable biology sources. Produce a cited poster that explains how each mechanism changes combinations of alleles.
# [[English:Meiosis Stop Motion|Meiosis Stop Motion]]: Produce a short stop-motion video that follows one diploid cell through DNA replication, meiosis I, and meiosis II. Include narration that distinguishes homolog separation from sister-chromatid separation.
# [[English:Science Site Visit Report|Science Site Visit Report]]: Visit a school laboratory, science museum, university outreach laboratory, botanical garden laboratory, or a teacher-approved virtual laboratory. Identify an exhibit or method connected to cell division and write a report linking the observation to chromosome behavior.

{{:Open Task - Create a MOOC}}

{{BR}}
= Learning Assessment =

# [[English:Chromosome Tracking Assessment|Chromosome Tracking Assessment]]: Given a diagram of a diploid cell with one homologous chromosome pair, predict the chromosome and chromatid arrangement after DNA replication, after mitosis, after meiosis I, and after meiosis II, and justify every change.
# [[English:Evidence-Based Comparison|Evidence-Based Comparison]]: Explain why meiosis I reduces chromosome-set number but mitosis normally does not. Use the behavior of homologous chromosomes and sister chromatids as evidence.
# [[English:Unknown Division Diagnosis|Unknown Division Diagnosis]]: Analyze an unfamiliar cell-division diagram and decide whether it represents mitosis, meiosis I, or meiosis II. Support your decision with at least three visible features.
# [[English:Variation Reasoning|Variation Reasoning]]: Compare two hypothetical meiotic events, one with crossing over and one without it. Predict how the possible genetic combinations in the products would differ and explain your reasoning.
# [[English:Error Analysis|Error Analysis]]: Examine a model in which chromosomes fail to separate correctly. Determine whether the error is more consistent with mitotic nondisjunction, meiotic nondisjunction, or a modeling mistake, and defend your conclusion.
# [[English:Real-World Transfer|Real-World Transfer]]: Choose growth, wound repair, plant propagation, gamete formation, or inherited variation. Explain which cell-division process is most important in that context and how chromosome behavior produces the observed outcome.

<br>
<br>

{{BR}}
= Evidence of Learning =

Strong evidence of learning combines what you know with what you can do. By the end of this course, your work should demonstrate the following:

{| class="wikitable"
! Evidence type
! What successful learning looks like
|-
| Knowledge
| You accurately explain chromosome replication, homologous pairs, sister chromatids, ploidy, mitosis, meiosis I, meiosis II, crossing over, independent assortment, and cytokinesis.
|-
| Skills
| You interpret cell-division diagrams and micrographs, sequence stages, track chromosome movement, compare processes, calculate a simple mitotic index, and justify conclusions with biological evidence.
|-
| Products
| You create clear models, diagrams, posters, reports, audio, video, or data displays that use correct chromosome representations and accurate scientific language.
|-
| Transfer
| You apply cell-division ideas to unfamiliar examples involving growth, repair, reproduction, inheritance, genetic variation, chromosome-number errors, or laboratory observations.
|}

<br>
<br>

{{BR}}
= OERs on the Topic =

The following open and freely accessible resources provide further study material.

<iframe> https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitosis </iframe>

<iframe> https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meiosis </iframe>

[https://openstax.org/books/biology-2e/pages/10-2-the-cell-cycle OpenStax Biology 2e: The Cell Cycle]

[https://openstax.org/books/biology-2e/pages/11-1-the-process-of-meiosis OpenStax Biology 2e: The Process of Meiosis]

[https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Mitosis National Human Genome Research Institute: Mitosis]

[https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Meiosis National Human Genome Research Institute: Meiosis]

<br>

{{BR}}
= Linked Learning Areas =

{| align=center
{{:D-Tab}}
'''[[English:Mitosis and Meiosis|Mitosis and Meiosis]]'''
# [[English:Cell cycle|Cell cycle]]
# [[English:DNA replication|DNA replication]]
# [[English:Chromosome|Chromosome]]
# [[English:Chromatid|Chromatid]]
# [[English:Mitosis|Mitosis]]
# [[English:Meiosis|Meiosis]]
# [[English:Ploidy|Ploidy]]
# [[English:Genetic recombination|Genetic recombination]]
# [[English:Genetic variation|Genetic variation]]
# [[English:Heredity|Heredity]]
|}

{{BR}}
= aiMOOC Projects =
[[Category:English]]
[[Category:Mitosis and Meiosis]]
[[Category:Biology]]
[[Category:Cell Biology]]
[[Category:Genetics]]
[[Category:Science]]
[[Category:Grades 9-10]]
[[Category:AI_MOOC]]
[[Category:GPT aiMOOC]]
{{MT}}

English:Mitosis and Meiosis - Versionsgeschichte

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