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{{T}}
[[Category:English]]
[[Category:Cognitive Psychology]]

{{BR}}
= Introduction =

'''Cognitive psychology''' is the scientific study of mental processes: how you notice information, perceive the world, remember and forget, understand language, solve problems, make decisions, and monitor your own thinking. In Grades 11–13, the topic connects everyday experience with experimental evidence. You will learn not only what researchers have discovered, but also how they design studies, interpret data, question models, and apply findings to learning, media use, eyewitness memory, and decision-making.

You can think of cognition as a set of interacting processes rather than a single mental “tool.” A sound must be detected before it can be interpreted, relevant information must be selected by [[English:Attention|attention]], new material must be encoded into [[English:Memory|memory]], and prior knowledge can influence what you expect to perceive. Cognitive psychologists study these processes through controlled experiments, reaction-time measures, accuracy scores, eye tracking, neuropsychological cases, brain imaging, computational models, and other methods.

{{#ev:youtube|https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R-sVnmmw6WY|500|center}}

'''Guiding questions for this aiMOOC:''' How limited is attention? Why can perception be misleading? What makes a memory durable? Why are memories reconstructive rather than perfect recordings? How do heuristics help and sometimes bias judgment? What makes a cognitive explanation scientifically convincing?

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= Foundations of Cognitive Psychology =

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== From Behavior to Mental Processes ==

Early twentieth-century [[English:Behaviorism|behaviorism]] emphasized observable behavior and often treated unobservable mental processes as unsuitable for scientific explanation. By the mid-twentieth century, researchers increasingly used experimental tasks and information-processing models to study internal processes indirectly. Work in linguistics, computer science, communication theory, neuroscience, and psychology contributed to what is often called the '''cognitive revolution'''.

Modern cognitive psychology does not simply replace behavior with speculation about the mind. Instead, it links theoretical constructs such as working memory, selective attention, or mental representations to measurable patterns of behavior. A model is useful when it generates predictions that can be tested and potentially revised.

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== How Cognitive Psychologists Build Evidence ==

A typical cognitive experiment changes one factor, the '''independent variable''', and measures an outcome, the '''dependent variable'''. For example, a researcher might compare reaction times when word meaning and ink color agree versus conflict. Good designs control alternative explanations, use clear operational definitions, and analyze variability rather than relying only on an average.

Important concepts include [[English:Experiment|experiments]], [[English:Correlation|correlations]], [[English:Reliability (statistics)|reliability]], [[English:Validity (statistics)|validity]], [[English:Replication (statistics)|replication]], and [[English:Research ethics|research ethics]]. A statistically detectable difference is not automatically a large or educationally important effect. You should therefore ask about effect size, sample characteristics, task realism, measurement quality, and whether other studies reproduce the finding.

'''Correlation does not by itself establish causation.''' If heavy media multitasking is associated with lower attention scores, several explanations are possible: multitasking may affect attention, attention differences may influence media habits, or another variable may influence both.

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= Perception: Constructing Experience from Sensory Input =

[[English:Perception|Perception]] is not a passive copy of the outside world. Sensory systems register physical energy, while perceptual processes organize and interpret the resulting signals. What you perceive depends on stimulus information, context, prior knowledge, expectations, and the goals that guide your attention.

{{#ev:youtube|https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=unWnZvXJH2o|500|center}}

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== Bottom-Up and Top-Down Processing ==

'''Bottom-up processing''' begins with sensory input and builds toward a representation. '''Top-down processing''' uses expectations, knowledge, and context to shape interpretation. Most real perception combines both. When handwriting is unclear, for example, the surrounding sentence can help you identify an ambiguous letter.

The [[English:Necker cube|Necker cube]] is an example of perceptual ambiguity. The same two-dimensional drawing can support more than one stable three-dimensional interpretation. The retinal image does not change, but your perceptual organization does.

[[File:Necker cube.svg|500px|frameless|center]]

The [[English:Müller-Lyer illusion|Müller-Lyer illusion]] shows that equal physical lengths can look unequal when surrounding visual cues differ. Illusions are valuable because they reveal the assumptions and shortcuts used by ordinary perceptual systems.

[[File:Müller-Lyer illusion.svg|500px|frameless|center]]

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== Perceptual Organization ==

[[English:Gestalt psychology|Gestalt principles]] describe regularities in how elements are grouped, including proximity, similarity, continuity, closure, and figure-ground organization. These principles are descriptive rather than magical rules: they summarize reliable tendencies in how visual systems organize patterns.

Perception is also adapted to constancy. You usually experience a door as having a stable shape while it opens, even though the projected image changes. Similarly, size constancy helps you interpret a person as remaining the same size when distance changes.

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= Attention: Selection Under Limited Capacity =

Attention helps you prioritize some information while other information receives less processing. The limits of attention become especially visible in dual-task situations, demanding searches, and unexpected events.

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== Selective Attention and Interference ==

In the [[English:Stroop effect|Stroop effect]], naming an ink color is usually slower or more error-prone when the printed color word names a different color. The conflict illustrates how an automatic, highly practiced process such as reading can interfere with a current goal.

[[File:Stroop comparison.svg|500px|frameless|center]]

One influential early account is [[English:Broadbent's filter model of attention|Broadbent's filter model]], which proposed an early selection mechanism for limiting the information that receives deeper processing. Later evidence led to alternative models in which unattended information can sometimes be processed to a greater degree.

[[File:Broadbent Filter Model.jpg|500px|frameless|center]]

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== Inattentional Blindness and Multitasking ==

[[English:Inattentional blindness|Inattentional blindness]] occurs when people fail to notice a visible but unexpected event because attention is engaged elsewhere. This does not mean that people are careless; it demonstrates that awareness has capacity limits.

{{#ev:youtube|https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vJG698U2Mvo|500|center}}

The practical lesson is not that multitasking is always impossible. Some well-practiced activities can be combined with little cost. However, two tasks that both require controlled attention often compete for limited resources. Rapidly switching between tasks can also create time costs and errors that people may underestimate.

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= Memory: Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval =

Memory is a family of processes that allow information and experience to influence later thought and behavior. A useful starting framework distinguishes '''encoding''', '''storage''', and '''retrieval'''. Different memory systems operate over different time scales and support different kinds of knowledge.

{{#ev:youtube|https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bSycdIx-C48|500|center}}

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== The Multi-Store Idea and Working Memory ==

The [[English:Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model|Atkinson–Shiffrin model]] distinguished sensory memory, a short-term store, and long-term memory. The model helped organize research, but later theories treated short-term retention as more active and specialized.

[[File:Original atkinson-shiffrin model.PNG|500px|frameless|center]]

The [[English:Baddeley's model of working memory|working-memory model]] describes a limited system for holding and manipulating information during complex tasks. Its components include a central executive, a phonological loop, a visuospatial sketchpad, and an episodic buffer. The model has been revised over time, which is a normal feature of scientific theory development.

[[File:Working-memory-en.svg|500px|frameless|center]]

Try a mental arithmetic problem such as 37 × 6 without writing. You must temporarily hold partial results while updating them. This illustrates why working memory is more than brief storage: it supports ongoing processing.

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== Long-Term Memory Systems ==

'''Episodic memory''' concerns personally experienced events; '''semantic memory''' concerns general knowledge; and '''procedural memory''' concerns skills and habits. These categories can interact. Learning to drive, for instance, may begin with explicit verbal rules and gradually become more automatic with practice.

The [[English:Hippocampus|Hippocampus]] and surrounding medial temporal structures play important roles in forming and organizing many declarative memories. Memory is nevertheless distributed across networks: no single brain area simply “contains” all memories.

[[File:Hippocampus.svg|500px|frameless|center]]

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== Forgetting, Spacing, and Retrieval Practice ==

Forgetting can result from weak encoding, interference, retrieval failure, or changes in stored representations. [[English:Hermann Ebbinghaus|Hermann Ebbinghaus]] showed that forgetting can be rapid early after learning and then slow over time. The exact shape depends on material, learner, task, and review.

[[File:Ebbinghaus curve.png|500px|frameless|center]]

'''Spacing''' learning across time and practicing retrieval are generally more effective for durable learning than repeatedly rereading the same material in one session. Retrieval practice works because actively producing information strengthens later access and reveals what you do not yet know.

{{#ev:youtube|https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HVWbrNls-Kw|500|center}}

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== Reconstructive Memory and Misinformation ==

Memory is reconstructive: recall combines stored traces with current cues, expectations, and knowledge. This flexibility supports useful inference, but it also creates errors. Suggestive wording, later information, source confusion, and repeated retelling can alter what a person reports.

Research on the [[English:Misinformation effect|misinformation effect]] is important for eyewitness interviewing. Confidence and accuracy can be related in some conditions, but confidence alone is not a guarantee that a specific memory is correct. Interview procedures should therefore minimize suggestion and preserve the witness's own report.

{{#ev:youtube|https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PB2OegI6wvI|500|center}}

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= Concepts, Knowledge, and Language =

Cognition depends on mental representations that allow you to group experiences, connect ideas, and use knowledge in new situations. A '''concept''' is a mental category; a '''prototype''' is a typical example used to judge category membership; and a '''schema''' is organized knowledge that guides interpretation.

[[File:Semantic Net.svg|500px|frameless|center]]

A semantic-network illustration represents concepts as connected nodes. Real human semantic memory is more complex than a simple diagram, but the network idea captures an important principle: activating one idea can make related ideas easier to access.

Language supports communication, categorization, planning, and self-guided thought. Cognitive psychologists investigate processes such as word recognition, sentence parsing, ambiguity resolution, speech production, and how context shapes meaning.

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= Problem Solving, Judgment, and Decision-Making =

People solve problems with a mixture of systematic procedures and shortcuts. An '''algorithm''' is a defined procedure that, when correctly applied to a suitable problem, can yield a solution. A '''heuristic''' is a shortcut that is often efficient but can produce predictable errors.

Common judgment phenomena include the [[English:Availability heuristic|availability heuristic]], in which easily recalled examples influence estimates, and the [[English:Representativeness heuristic|representativeness heuristic]], in which similarity to a prototype can dominate relevant base-rate information. [[English:Confirmation bias|Confirmation bias]] describes the tendency to seek, interpret, or remember information in ways that support an existing belief.

These tendencies are not simply signs of irrationality. Heuristics often save effort and work well in familiar environments. The scientific question is when a strategy is adaptive, when it becomes biased, and what information or decision structure improves performance.

{{#ev:youtube|https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R-sVnmmw6WY|500|center}}

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== Metacognition and Learning Decisions ==

[[English:Metacognition|Metacognition]] means thinking about and regulating your own thinking. Effective learners estimate what they know, choose strategies, monitor understanding, and revise plans. A major challenge is that '''fluency''' can be misleading: material may feel familiar after rereading without being retrievable later.

A practical study cycle is to learn a small unit, close the source, retrieve the main ideas from memory, compare your answer with the source, correct errors, and return after a delay. This produces information about both memory strength and strategy effectiveness.

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= Cognitive Neuroscience =

Cognitive psychology and [[English:Cognitive neuroscience|cognitive neuroscience]] overlap but are not identical. Cognitive psychology can explain behavior through functional models even without measuring the brain. Cognitive neuroscience asks how cognitive functions relate to neural systems and uses tools such as [[English:Functional magnetic resonance imaging|fMRI]], [[English:Electroencephalography|EEG]], lesion studies, and stimulation methods.

Brain imaging does not literally display a thought. It measures signals related to neural activity and requires statistical analysis and theoretical interpretation. Reverse inference can be risky: observing activity in a region associated with one process does not prove that the same process caused the activity in a new task.

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= Applications and Responsible Use =

Cognitive psychology informs [[English:Education|education]], interface design, transport safety, advertising, clinical assessment, law, and human-computer interaction. In school, spacing, retrieval practice, worked examples, and management of attentional load can improve learning when used appropriately. In design, reducing unnecessary cognitive load can make instructions and interfaces easier to use.

Applications also require ethical judgment. Cognitive findings can be used to support autonomy, but they can also be used to capture attention or influence choices. When evaluating a persuasive interface, ask who benefits, whether important information is hidden, whether consent is meaningful, and whether users can easily reverse a choice.

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= How to Evaluate a Cognitive Claim =

When you encounter a claim such as “this app trains your brain” or “multitasking makes you more productive,” do not decide from a headline alone. Ask what was measured, what the comparison condition was, how large the effect was, whether the sample represents the target population, whether the study was preregistered or replicated, and whether the outcome transfers beyond the practiced task.

A strong explanation combines theory, evidence, and uncertainty. Scientific models are not weakened by revision; they become more useful when new evidence identifies their limits.

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= Interactive Tasks =

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== Quiz: Test Your Knowledge ==

{{MC}}

'''Which statement best describes cognitive psychology?'''
(The scientific study of mental processes using observable evidence)
(!The study of behavior without any reference to mental processes)
(!The claim that every thought has one fixed brain location)
(!The study of personality types through intuition alone)

{{E}}
<br>

{{MC}}

'''What does the Stroop effect mainly demonstrate?'''
(Automatic processing can interfere with a controlled task)
(!Long-term memory always overrides perception)
(!All visual information is processed consciously)
(!Reading speed is unrelated to attention)

{{E}}
<br>

{{MC}}

'''Which example best illustrates top-down processing?'''
(Using sentence context to identify an unclear word)
(!Light activating receptors in the retina)
(!Sound waves reaching the ear)
(!A stimulus triggering a sensory receptor)

{{E}}
<br>

{{MC}}

'''What is a central idea of working memory?'''
(Information can be briefly maintained and manipulated during a task)
(!All short-term information is stored permanently)
(!Working memory has unlimited capacity)
(!Working memory operates only during sleep)

{{E}}
<br>

{{MC}}

'''Which process brings stored information back into awareness?'''
(Retrieval)
(!Encoding)
(!Sensation)
(!Habituation)

{{E}}
<br>

{{MC}}

'''What does the forgetting curve illustrate?'''
(Forgetting can be rapid at first and then slow over time)
(!All memories disappear at a constant rate)
(!Forgetting occurs only when people are distracted)
(!Old information can never be relearned)

{{E}}
<br>

{{MC}}

'''Why can eyewitness memory be inaccurate?'''
(Recall is reconstructive and can be influenced by later information)
(!Vision records events as an exact permanent video)
(!Confidence always guarantees accuracy)
(!Memory cannot be altered after an event)

{{E}}
<br>

{{MC}}

'''What is a heuristic?'''
(A mental shortcut that can be efficient but sometimes biased)
(!A brain region responsible for all decisions)
(!A guaranteed method for solving every problem)
(!A measurement of sensory receptor strength)

{{E}}
<br>

{{MC}}

'''What does inattentional blindness show?'''
(Focused attention can cause an unexpected visible event to be missed)
(!People see every visible object at once)
(!Vision stops whenever a person concentrates)
(!Unexpected events are always remembered accurately)

{{E}}
<br>

{{MC}}

'''Which study method most directly practices later recall?'''
(Retrieving an answer from memory before checking notes)
(!Rereading the same paragraph several times)
(!Highlighting every sentence in a chapter)
(!Keeping notes open while copying definitions)

{{E}}
<br>

{{BR}}
== Memory Game ==

<div class="memo-quiz">
{|
|-
| Selective attention || Prioritizing some information while reducing processing of other information
|-
| Working memory || Limited system for temporarily holding and manipulating information
|-
| Episodic memory || Memory for personally experienced events
|-
| Semantic memory || Memory for facts and general knowledge
|-
| Retrieval cue || Information that helps activate access to a stored memory
|-
| Prototype || Typical example used to judge category membership
|-
| Heuristic || Efficient shortcut that can sometimes produce systematic errors
|-
| Metacognition || Monitoring and regulating your own thinking
|}
{{E}}
<br>

{{BR}}
== Drag and Drop ==

<div class="lueckentext-quiz">

{| class="wikitable"
! Match the correct terms.
! Topic
|-
| '''Encoding'''
| Transforming information so it can enter a memory system
|-
| '''Storage'''
| Maintaining information across time
|-
| '''Retrieval'''
| Accessing information that was previously stored
|-
| '''Interference'''
| Competition from other information that disrupts remembering
|-
| '''Spacing'''
| Distributing learning episodes across time
|}
{{E}}

<br>
Match the five processes to the descriptions, then explain in your own words why a learner may encode information successfully but still fail to retrieve it later.
<br />

{{BR}}
== Crossword Puzzle ==

<div class="kreuzwort-quiz">
{|
|-
| Attention || What process selects some information for prioritized processing?
|-
| Schema || What organized knowledge structure helps guide interpretation?
|-
| Encoding || What process transforms information for entry into memory?
|-
| Retrieval || What process accesses information that was stored earlier?
|-
| Heuristic || What efficient mental shortcut may sometimes create bias?
|-
| Metacognition || What term means monitoring and regulating your own thinking?
|}
{{E}}
<br>

{{BR}}
== LearningApps ==

<iframe> https://learningapps.org/index.php?s=Cognitive+Psychology </iframe>

{{BR}}
== Cloze Text ==

<quiz display=simple>
{'''Complete the text.'''<br>
|type="{}"}
Cognitive psychology studies mental processes using { empirical evidence }. Selective attention is limited, so an unexpected event may be missed through { inattentional blindness }. In the Stroop task, automatic reading can produce { interference }. Perception combines sensory input with prior knowledge through both bottom-up and { top-down processing }. Working memory temporarily maintains and { manipulates information }. Long-term declarative memory includes episodic and { semantic memory }. The hippocampus is important for forming many new { declarative memories }. Durable learning is often improved when practice is distributed through { spacing }. Actively producing information from memory is called { retrieval practice }. Eyewitness reports can be changed by later misleading information through the { misinformation effect }. A fast strategy that usually reduces effort is a { heuristic }. Monitoring and regulating your own thinking is called { metacognition }.
</quiz>

<br>

{{BR}}
= Open-Ended Tasks =

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=== Easy ===
# [[English:Attention diary|Attention diary]]: For one school day, record four moments when your attention shifted; identify the competing stimuli and explain which shift was deliberate and which was automatic.
# [[English:Perception gallery|Perception gallery]]: Create a one-page image gallery with three lawful optical illusions and annotate what each illusion reveals about perceptual interpretation.
# [[English:Memory strategy test|Memory strategy test]]: Learn two comparable short word lists, one by rereading and one by self-testing, then compare your delayed recall and describe the limits of this one-person demonstration.
# [[English:Cognitive vocabulary video|Cognitive vocabulary video]]: Produce a two-minute explainer video using the terms attention, perception, encoding, retrieval, heuristic, and metacognition in accurate everyday examples.

{{BR}}
=== Standard ===
# [[English:Stroop investigation|Stroop investigation]]: Conduct a small, consent-based classroom Stroop experiment, record response times for congruent and incongruent trials, visualize the results, and discuss measurement error.
# [[English:Interview about remembering|Interview about remembering]]: Interview an adult about a vivid shared or public event, separate confidence from verifiable detail, and write a reflection on why confidence alone cannot establish accuracy.
# [[English:Study design audit|Study design audit]]: Compare two study techniques over one week using the same subject matter and a delayed quiz, then explain possible confounds and how you would improve the design.
# [[English:Interface attention audit|Interface attention audit]]: Analyze a website or app for notifications, visual hierarchy, defaults, and interruptions; redesign one screen to reduce unnecessary cognitive load and justify each change.

{{BR}}
=== Advanced ===
# [[English:Replication proposal|Replication proposal]]: Choose a classic cognitive effect such as Stroop interference, serial position, or inattentional blindness and write a preregistration-style plan with hypothesis, variables, exclusion rules, analysis, and ethical safeguards.
# [[English:Eyewitness memory project|Eyewitness memory project]]: Create two neutral mock interview scripts for a staged event, compare them with a suggestive version, and explain how wording could affect recall without exposing participants to distress.
# [[English:Cognitive model comparison|Cognitive model comparison]]: Write an evidence-based comparison of the Atkinson–Shiffrin model and Baddeley's working-memory model, identifying what each explains well and where later evidence requires qualification.
# [[English:Decision bias investigation|Decision bias investigation]]: Collect a set of real headlines, advertisements, or interface choices, classify possible heuristic or framing effects, then create an educational infographic that distinguishes evidence from interpretation.

{{:Open Task - Create a MOOC}}

{{BR}}
= Learning Assessment =

# [[English:Experimental reasoning|Experimental reasoning]]: Given a Stroop data table with reaction times and errors, identify the independent and dependent variables, propose a suitable comparison, and explain what result would support an interference account.
# [[English:Transfer to learning|Transfer to learning]]: Design a two-week revision plan for a difficult topic using spacing, retrieval practice, feedback, and metacognitive monitoring, and justify the timing of each element.
# [[English:Model evaluation|Model evaluation]]: Use one finding from working-memory research to explain why a simple short-term storage model may be incomplete, then identify one limitation of the alternative model you discuss.
# [[English:Evidence and causation|Evidence and causation]]: Evaluate a claim that smartphone multitasking causes low academic performance by proposing at least two alternative explanations and one stronger research design.
# [[English:Memory and law|Memory and law]]: Analyze a fictional eyewitness case in which later discussion introduced new details, distinguishing observation, inference, confidence, and possible misinformation.
# [[English:Ethical cognitive design|Ethical cognitive design]]: Evaluate a persuasive digital interface from the perspectives of attention, framing, autonomy, and informed choice, then recommend changes that preserve user agency.

<br>
<br>

{{BR}}
= Evidence of Learning =

{| class="wikitable"
! Area
! Evidence you can demonstrate
|-
| Knowledge
| You accurately explain attention, perception, memory systems, forgetting, reconstructive memory, concepts, heuristics, metacognition, and the logic of cognitive experiments.
|-
| Research skills
| You operationalize variables, collect data ethically, distinguish correlation from causation, interpret reaction time and accuracy measures, and discuss confounds and uncertainty.
|-
| Analytical skills
| You compare models, connect evidence to claims, identify overgeneralization, and distinguish a strong inference from a plausible but untested explanation.
|-
| Products
| You can produce data visualizations, experiment reports, annotated media, interview analyses, revision plans, redesigns, infographics, or short explanatory videos.
|-
| Transfer
| You apply cognitive principles to studying, eyewitness evaluation, media use, interface design, and everyday decisions while recognizing the limits of laboratory findings.
|-
| Reflection
| You monitor your own learning, revise ineffective strategies, and explain how your confidence differs from objective performance.
|}

<br>
<br>

{{BR}}
= OERs on the Topic =

<iframe> https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_psychology </iframe>

For further open learning, compare the course with [https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/7-1-what-is-cognition OpenStax Psychology 2e: What Is Cognition?], [https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/8-1-how-memory-functions OpenStax Psychology 2e: How Memory Functions], and [https://www.noba.to/modules/attention Noba: Attention]. When sources disagree in terminology or emphasis, identify the underlying evidence rather than assuming one diagram is the final answer.

<br>

{{BR}}
= Linked Learning Areas =

{| align=center
{{:D-Tab}}
'''[[English:Cognitive Psychology|Cognitive Psychology]]'''
# [[English:Attention|Attention]]
# [[English:Perception|Perception]]
# [[English:Memory|Memory]]
# [[English:Working memory|Working memory]]
# [[English:Learning|Learning]]
# [[English:Language|Language]]
# [[English:Problem solving|Problem solving]]
# [[English:Decision-making|Decision-making]]
# [[English:Cognitive bias|Cognitive bias]]
# [[English:Metacognition|Metacognition]]
# [[English:Cognitive neuroscience|Cognitive neuroscience]]
# [[English:Research methods|Research methods]]
|}

Cognitive psychology connects especially strongly with [[English:Psychology|Psychology]], [[English:Biology|Biology]], [[English:Neuroscience|Neuroscience]], [[English:Education|Education]], [[English:Statistics|Statistics]], [[English:Computer science|Computer science]], [[English:Linguistics|Linguistics]], [[English:Philosophy of mind|Philosophy of mind]], and [[English:Media literacy|Media literacy]]. These links matter because explanations of cognition often require several levels at once: behavioral evidence, mental models, neural mechanisms, social context, and careful measurement.

{{BR}}
= aiMOOC Projects =
[[Category:English]]
[[Category:Cognitive Psychology]]
[[Category:Psychology]]
[[Category:Neuroscience]]
[[Category:Education]]
[[Category:Grades 11-13]]
[[Category:AI_MOOC]]
[[Category:GPT aiMOOC]]
{{MT}}

English:Cognitive Psychology - Versionsgeschichte

Glanz: aiMOOC über GPT aiMOOC Action erstellt